I
Grammar
Passive Voice, Conditionals & Clauses
Advanced grammar structures
🔄
Passive Voice
be + past participle in all tenses
🔄 Passive Voice
The Passive Voice is used when the action is more important than who does it, or when we don't know who did it. It is formed with be + past participle. The "agent" (who did it) is introduced with "by".
📌 Passive in all tenses
- Present Simple: "English is spoken worldwide."
- Past Simple: "The letter was written yesterday."
- Present Perfect: "The exam has been corrected."
- Future: "The building will be demolished."
- Modal: "The problem must be solved."
- By + agent (optional): "...was written by Shakespeare."
📝 Active to Passive
- Active: "Scientists discovered a new planet."
- Passive: "A new planet was discovered (by scientists)."
- Active object → Passive subject
- Active verb → be (same tense) + past participle
- Active subject → by + agent (optional)
S + be (tense) + Past Participle + (by + agent)
✏️ Exercises
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Exercise 1 — Transform to Passive
"They built this school in 1950." → Passive?
"This school was built in 1950 (by them)." — Past Simple passive: was + built. The agent "by them" is usually omitted when it's not specific. -
Exercise 2 — Fill in
"The homework _______ (not/submit) yet." (Present Perfect Passive)
"The homework has not been submitted yet." (Present Perfect Passive: have/has + been + past participle) -
Exercise 3
Write 2 passive sentences: one about a product and one about a historical event.
Samples: "The iPhone was designed by Apple." / "Machu Picchu was built by the Incas in the 15th century."
🔀
Conditionals
Zero, First and Second Conditionals
🔀 Conditionals
Conditional sentences express situations that depend on a condition. The three main types (Zero, First, Second) differ in probability and time frame.
📌 Three Types of Conditionals
- Zero: If + Present, Present — general truths, scientific facts: "If you heat water, it boils."
- First: If + Present, will + inf — real, possible situation in future: "If it rains, I will stay home."
- Second: If + Past Simple, would + inf — hypothetical, unlikely present/future: "If I had a million dollars, I would travel the world."
📝 Key points
- The "if clause" can come first or second: "I would travel if I had money."
- Zero: certainty — always true
- First: real possibility — "maybe it will happen"
- Second: imaginary — "it probably won't happen"
- Second: "If I were you..." (formal: were for all persons)
1st: If + present → will + inf | 2nd: If + past → would + inf
✏️ Exercises
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Exercise 1 — Identify the type
"If I were a bird, I would fly to the mountains." Which type is it and why?
Second Conditional — It's imaginary/hypothetical (I'm not a bird). Structure: If + past simple (were) + would + infinitive (fly). -
Exercise 2 — Complete
"If you study hard, you _______ (pass) the exam." Which type?
"...you will pass the exam." — First Conditional: real, possible future situation. The speaker believes studying hard is possible and the result is likely.
🔗
Relative Clauses
who, which, that, where, whose — defining vs non-defining
🔗 Relative Clauses
Relative clauses give extra information about a noun using relative pronouns. Defining clauses identify the noun; non-defining clauses just add extra (non-essential) information.
📌 Relative Pronouns
- who: for people — "The girl who won is my friend."
- which: for things/animals — "The book which I read was great."
- that: for people or things (defining only) — "The car that I want is red."
- where: for places — "The city where I grew up is Lima."
- whose: possession — "The student whose essay won is here."
📝 Defining vs Non-Defining
- Defining: essential information — no commas: "Students who study pass."
- Non-defining: extra info — use commas: "My teacher, who is from Canada, speaks French."
- Non-defining: cannot use "that"
- Defining: can omit pronoun when object: "The book (that) I read..."
Noun + relative pronoun (who/which/that/where/whose) + clause
✏️ Exercises
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Exercise 1 — Choose the right pronoun
"The restaurant _______ we ate last night was excellent." (who/where/which)
"The restaurant where we ate last night was excellent." (where = place) OR "The restaurant that/which we ate at last night was excellent." (that/which = thing + preposition at the end) -
Exercise 2
Join: "I met a girl. Her brother is a famous singer." → Use whose.
"I met a girl whose brother is a famous singer." (whose = possession/relationship)
II
Writing & Vocabulary
Academic Writing & Technology
Argumentative essays and digital world vocabulary
📄
Academic Writing
Argumentative essay in English
📄 Academic Writing — Argumentative Essay
An argumentative essay presents your position on a debatable topic and supports it with evidence and reasoning. It is the most common type of academic writing in English.
📌 Essay Structure
- Introduction: Hook → Background → Thesis statement (your position)
- Body §1: Topic sentence → Evidence → Analysis → Transition
- Body §2: Topic sentence → Evidence → Analysis → Transition
- Counter-argument (optional): Acknowledge + Refute
- Conclusion: Restate thesis → Summary → Call to action/final thought
📝 Useful Academic Phrases
- Thesis: "This essay argues that..." / "It is clear that..."
- Adding: "Furthermore," / "In addition to this,"
- Evidence: "According to..." / "Research suggests that..."
- Counter: "Although some argue... however..."
- Conclusion: "In conclusion," / "To summarize,"
Hook → Thesis → Evidence × 2-3 → Counter → Conclusion
✏️ Exercises
-
Exercise 1 — Write a thesis
Topic: "Should school uniforms be mandatory?" Write a thesis statement taking a clear position.
Samples: FOR: "School uniforms should be mandatory in all secondary schools because they reduce social inequality, improve discipline, and create a sense of belonging." AGAINST: "Mandatory school uniforms limit students' self-expression and do not effectively improve academic performance or school culture." -
Exercise 2
Write one body paragraph (4-5 sentences) supporting the thesis about uniforms.
Sample: "One major benefit of school uniforms is that they reduce socioeconomic inequality among students. When all students wear the same clothing, it becomes harder to identify who comes from a wealthy or poor family. This reduces bullying related to fashion and branded clothing. According to a 2019 UNESCO report, schools with uniforms reported lower rates of clothing-related bullying. Therefore, uniforms create a more equal and respectful environment."
💻
Technology & Society Vocabulary
Gadgets, social media and digital world
💻 Technology & Society Vocabulary
Technology vocabulary is essential for discussing modern life in English. From gadgets to social media, knowing these terms helps you communicate in academic, professional and everyday contexts.
📱 Gadgets & Digital World
- gadget: pequeño dispositivo tecnológico
- smartphone/wearable/tablet: dispositivos portátiles
- app (application): aplicación de software
- cloud computing: almacenamiento en internet
- artificial intelligence (AI): inteligencia artificial
- cybersecurity: seguridad informática
- algorithm: conjunto de instrucciones para procesar datos
🌐 Social Media & Online Life
- post/share/like/comment/follow/unfollow
- viral content: contenido que se difunde masivamente
- influencer: persona con gran audiencia online
- digital footprint: rastro digital que dejamos
- cyberbullying: acoso en línea
- fake news: noticias falsas
- privacy settings: configuración de privacidad
Digital literacy = ability to use, evaluate and create digital content responsibly
✏️ Exercises
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Exercise 1 — Match
Match: (a) cyberbullying, (b) viral, (c) digital footprint, (d) AI — with their definitions.
(a) cyberbullying = online harassment targeting a person. (b) viral = content that spreads rapidly across the internet. (c) digital footprint = the data trail you leave when using the internet. (d) AI = systems that simulate human intelligence (e.g., ChatGPT). -
Exercise 2 — Discussion
Write 3 sentences about how technology has changed education, using vocabulary from this topic.
Samples: "1. Apps and online platforms allow students to access educational content anytime. 2. AI tools can personalize learning by adapting to each student's pace and level. 3. However, cyberbullying and distractions from social media pose challenges for students using technology in school."